WATER IS THE SOURCE OF LIFE (FOREST SPRINGS AND POOLS)
Water is one of the most essential factors for human life. However, it has not been long since most people began to fully realize the true value of water. Only when sources of potable and utility water on Earth started to become scarce and the demand for water reached its highest level did serious attention begin to be paid to this problem. Most regrettably, the scale of this problem continues to grow rapidly. This undoubtedly poses a real threat to humanity. Therefore, conducting research on the historical experience of water use and developing measures to address the problems mentioned above is considered one of the most important tools in finding solutions. Even today, water remains a unique and vital natural resource of paramount importance for all spheres of socio-economic activity—from meeting people’s daily needs to supporting all sectors of the economy, especially agriculture and industry, as well as maintaining ecological balance [1].
The geographical division of the Forish district into river valleys, desert-steppe areas, mountainous and foothill zones has led to the diversity of its economic activities.
In the main part of the Forish district, grain farming has traditionally focused on wheat, barley, oats, rice, sesame, chickpeas, and beans. Horticulture has included grapes, apricots, apples, sour cherries, pomegranates, figs, peaches, walnuts, and almonds, while melon growing has produced melons, rain-fed watermelons, and pumpkins.
In the Forish district, irrigation sources have played an extremely important role in developing rain-fed lands. One of the main water sources of the Jizzakh oasis is the Sangzor River. This river, which is the primary irrigation artery of the region, is formed by the confluence of two streams—Gʻoʻralash and Jontaka—which originate on the northern slope of the Shunqor range at an elevation of 3,300 meters in the Turkestan Mountains. Initially flowing northward along the western slope of the Morguzar Mountains toward the Gallaorol Valley, the river then sharply turns northeast through the Ilonotti Gorge, which separates the Morguzar and Nurata ranges, heading toward the city of Jizzakh. After that, it turns northwest again toward the Qili Desert. The river’s catchment area covers 2,580 km², and its length from the source to Qili village is 123 km. The average discharge of the Sangzor River is 6.9 m³ per second, while in some particularly rainy years (for example, 1969) peak flows reached 258–300 m³ per second, and during floods up to 411 m³ per second.
In the past, the waters of the Sangzor River were used to supply drinking water and irrigation for three cultural regions of Ustrushana: Burnamad (Bakhmal), Kharkana (Gallaorol), and Fagnon (Jizzakh). Since the Middle Ages, 12 irrigation canals drawing water from the Sangzor have continued to be used in the city of Jizzakh and its surrounding district.
Qili Canal.
The Qili canal, a lower branch of the Sangzor, begins near the village of the same name from wastewater and saline groundwater discharge and flows into Lake Tuzkon, located 30 km to the north. Due to its salty and bitter water, the Qili is unsuitable for drinking and agricultural use. However, during periods of heavy rainfall and floods, excess water from the Sangzor has been diverted into the Qili. At such times, Sangzor water reached the Qili channel and flowed into Tuzkon Lake.
Saykhonsoy Stream.
This stream is located along the northeastern slope of the Morguzar Mountains. Although Saykhonsoy carries much less water than Ravotsoy, it serves as the main water source for the villages of Hasangoba, Quduqcha, Saykhon, and Tuyoqli within its basin. Humans settled along the banks of Saykhonsoy as early as the Bronze Age, as evidenced by galleries of rock carvings studied by scholars. In the lower reaches of Saykhonsoy, fortresses and strongholds built mainly in the early and high Middle Ages have been preserved.
Lake Tuzkon.
Lake Tuzkon, located in the lower reaches of the Sangzor River in the northern part of the Jizzakh region, is the only lake in the studied area. Historically, it was known as “Qolgan Sir,” meaning “the remnant of the Syr Darya’s old channel.” According to data from 1895, the lake gradually dried up year by year. From the 1950s onward, as part of desert reclamation and saline land leaching, wastewater formed through collector-drainage networks was discharged into Lake Tuzkon—a process that continues today. As a result, a large area known as the Arnasoy Depression has formed the “Arnasoy Lake System.” According to available data, the total area of the Arnasoy lakes exceeds 2,300 km². Currently, the Arnasoy Lake stretches up to 300 km in length and up to 60 km in width. In recent years, the Arnasoy Lake has had a noticeable impact on the climate of central regions of Uzbekistan, particularly Jizzakh and Syrdarya provinces. Some sources suggest that lakes such as Tuzkon and Aydarkul are remnants of the ancient Tethys Ocean, similar to the Aral and Caspian Seas.
Around Lake Tuzkon and the Arnasoy area, burial mounds dating to the Bronze Age and the early Middle Ages have been identified. This indicates that people have lived in the Forish district since ancient times, largely due to the region’s favorable natural conditions for economic activity. Human settlement has continued uninterrupted since ancient and classical periods, intensifying in the late Middle Ages. Population growth led to the development of new lands, which in turn caused water scarcity. During this period, the Tuyatortar Canal was excavated, and extensive use was made of river, stream, spring waters, as well as reserves collected from seasonal rainfall.
As noted above, the increase in the number of farms intensified the demand for water. Consequently, practices of rational water use and water storage gradually developed. The first reservoirs began to appear in the district. One such example is the Khanbandi Reservoir, built on the northern slopes of the Nurata Mountains. Academician A. Muhammadjonov writes:
“To collect the waters of the Osmonsoy and Ilonchisoy streams on the northern slope of Nurata, the Khanbandi reservoir was built in the 10th century. After the dam was constructed, a reservoir formed within the Osmonsoy gorge, 1.5 km long, 52 m wide near the dam, and 200 m wide at the mouth of the gorge. Approximately 1.6 million cubic meters of water were accumulated in the reservoir.”
Studies conducted at hydraulic structures such as Khanbandi, Gʻishtbandi, and Abdullakhanbandi demonstrate that these were extremely complex engineering constructions for their time.
These reservoirs partially met the water needs of the population living in the mountainous and foothill areas of the Nurata region. However, insufficient maintenance and the lack of timely cleaning led to their gradual silting and eventual failure. Informants note that the Khanbandi reservoir was actively used even in the last quarter of the 20th century, and the water flowing from it formed a distinctive waterfall. During field research, companions from Uchquloch village enthusiastically recalled and showed photographs depicting this “waterfall,” confirming these accounts.
Groundwater (springs) is widespread in mountainous and foothill areas. Unique methods of using these small water sources were developed. Along access roads into valleys where villages are located, small ponds were built at mountain foothills. Such distinctive hydraulic structures are common in villages at the foot of the Nurata Mountains, and their remains still exist today. During field research in Uxumsoy village, three such ponds were identified, although two are now completely unusable due to the diversion of stream water away from them. In addition, some of these sites have been converted into residential land plots. Only one pond is still partially in use, with 2–3 households currently using collected runoff water to irrigate their household plots and gardens.
The pond in Andagen village.
These types of ponds are known as “qulfakli ponds” and differ significantly from ordinary ponds. While ordinary ponds are dug into the ground, these water structures were built directly on the ground surface. According to A. Muhammadjonov:
“A suitable site measuring 60 m in length and 10 m in width was selected, and on three sides a wall made of stone and turf was constructed, 2 m high, with a base width of 3 m and a top width of 1.5 m. Water entered the reservoir through an upper inlet via a canal, while discharge from the lower outlet was regulated using a single device—a 3-meter-long wooden pole wrapped with cloth at the end. This pole sealed the outlet opening. When water was needed, a designated person lifted the pole, allowing the entire volume of 1,800–2,000 cubic meters of stored water to be released over 7–8 hours.”
The use of such ponds was governed by strict rules and discipline, with water turns determined by village elders through a lottery system. In early summer, the flow of Nurata mountain rivers and springs decreased significantly, so irrigation of terraced lands was carried out according to a strict schedule. For example, in large villages such as Sintob and Hisor, households were divided into ten clans or communities. Within each clan, households took turns receiving water. In Uxum village, water from each side of the valley was collected into two ponds. For six days, two clans—Sultoni and Tabaqli (together equal in size to the Albaki clan)—used the water. One pond’s water was allocated to six households. Division into groups was based on kinship, and turns were determined by drawing lots. Elder residents of Uxum village note that this practice continued until relatively recent times. A mirab (water master) regulated water distribution on a daily or hourly basis, and his compensation was usually collected from the village community.
The construction, maintenance, and regular cleaning of irrigation structures involved considerable difficulties. Archival materials from the late 19th and early 20th centuries preserve extensive information on this subject. Beginning in the 1890s, to regulate the use of Zarafshan River waters, a special decree issued on March 22, 1894, by the Governor-General of Turkestan established the Permanent Samarkand–Bukhara Water Distribution Commission.
The pond in Uxum village.
This commission implemented a number of measures to regulate water distribution between Samarkand Province and the Emirate of Bukhara. Residents of Jizzakh uyezd obtained water from rivers and canals through channels allocated to village communities. In many volosts, where groundwater was abundant, residents used wells not only for drinking water but also for irrigating crops—for example, in areas such as Zomin and Bakhmal. Such activities were carried out with the participation of residents from several villages, entire districts, and even provinces. Annual communal labor (hashar) was organized to clean main and secondary irrigation canals. In addition, residents paid special fees (water charges) to maintain major canals and contributed labor to the construction of new canals and dams.
Naturally, the formation of water-use practices among the Uzbek people dates back to the distant past. Using the example of the Forish district, only certain aspects of this long history have been presented here. In fact, the sphere of water use can be analyzed from several perspectives. Future articles will address types of water structures, systems of rules governing water management, and related issues.
Reference:
[1] Ashirov A. Water in Uzbek Culture. Tashkent: Akademnashr, 2020, p. 3.
